Alternative Perspectives on LeadershipIntegrating Transformational Leadership with Confucian Philosophy – AbstractIn this section, we'll be looking at a model for integrating elements of Transformational Leadership with Confucian Philosophy. The various concepts of each perspective are discussed with special emphasis on efforts to note similarities in the two perspectives. Examples of how leaders could apply the integration of these two perspectives are presented for those working in the social service field.IntroductionThe literature on leadership in social work administrative practice is relatively scant at this point in time (Kirkpatrick & Ackroyd, 2003). Instead, there has been an emphasis on the management and supervisory aspects of social work administrative practice (Lawler, 2008). Mizrahi & Berger (2001) maintain that management is best understood as a means of getting the work done. Bennis & Nanus (1985) have stated that managing means to accomplish activities and manage routines, usually within a set of contractual exchanges. In essence, it is the technical and operational aspects of the work.
On the other hand:Leadership is more about "setting the direction, standards, and vision for an organization" (Mizrahi & Berger, 2001: p. 171). Mary (2005) states that leadership
ConfuciusPersonal HistoryLeadership PerspectivesTransformational LeadershipConfucius is the Latinized name of Kung Zi, or Master King. He was born in 551 BC in the state of Lu, in the southern part of the present Shandong province in eastern China.
He lived in a period of Chinese history known as the Warring States. There were hundreds of feudal states in conflict with one another; however, it was also a period of great freedom of thought (Fernandez, 2004).
Confucius' aim was to bring about social reforms through education to bring about an ideal society through the promotion of ideal ways of life and full development of the individual personality.
Within the Confucian perspective, leadership is viewed as the emergent quality of one's character that is emitted and in turn encourages others to want to follow. In essence, it is principally built upon the respect and trusts a leader is able to create.
A critical condition for leadership is to strive toward near-perfect behaviors. A true leader is willing and able to serve as a model to followers. While Confucius held that leadership resides within the person, he did not believe that one is born with those qualities; on the contrary, these qualities are acquired through a conscious effort of self-improvement and unvarying learning (Fernandez, 2004).
Therefore, true leadership is not reserved for a few but is open to all who are willing to work hard on their journey to becoming virtuous.
An important theory of leadership is based upon the writings of Bass (1985) and is termed transformational leadership.
According to Bass, transformational leadership occurs when a leader transforms, or changes, his or her followers in ways that result in followers trusting the leader, performing behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, and being motivated to perform at a high level.
Transformational Leadership and Confucian PhilosophyBelow are four key components to transformational leadership theory: Each of these will now be discussed with comments regarding the relationship with Confucian philosophy noted. The concept of idealized influence is similar to what might generally be thought of as charisma. It is important to note that charisma is not always to be viewed in a negative light.
Some even suggest that charisma is a vital element to successful transformational leadership (Aaltio-Marjosola & Takala, 2000). From this perspective, the application of idealized influence refers to a "leader's ability to generate enthusiasm and draw people together around a vision through self-confidence and emotional appeal".
At a more concrete level, a leader can become a more idealized influence by modeling desirable role behaviors within the organization and culture. By demonstrating that he/she is a positive role model, a leader can bring about trust, respect, and even admiration of followers.
This dimension of transformational leadership has to do with getting followers to think about old problems in new ways. Transformational leaders delegate responsibility and authority to followers so that they empower followers to accomplish organizational goals in a relatively autonomous manner.
The status quo is questioned, and new innovative methods for developing the organization and accomplishing its mission are explored (Bass, 1985). Risk-taking behaviors and autonomy are trademarks of people who value individuality, egalitarianism, and open-mindedness. Openness ensures that they see new ways of thinking as something that contributes to leadership effectiveness.
This refers to a leader's enthusiasm and optimism in articulating a clear, compelling vision, which results in stimulating a similar feeling among followers and helps a group of people towards its goals (Bass, 1985). Others suggest that the inspirational leader always talks optimistically about the future and also talks enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished.
In addition, inspirational leaders support staff to envision attractive future states and they motivate their staff to achieve organizational goals (Avolio & Bass 2004)
This term refers to efforts on the part of a leader to provide emotional and social support to their followers and to develop and empower them through coaching, mentoring, and growth opportunities. Burns (1978) says leaders who exhibit individualized consideration "deal with others as individuals; consider their individual needs, abilities, and aspirations; listen attentively; further their development; advise; teach, and coach".
Leaders who are effective at individual consideration are better able to delegate responsibility, empower people, support their subordinates, and be responsive to individual needs. In essence, they listen, communicate, and encourage.
Application to Social Work Leadership
It should be recognized that social work administrators/leaders do need to be able to focus on the tasks at hand in fulfilling their managerial roles, as in reality, social service agencies are essentially businesses that must at least break even in order to stay in existence.
However, it is also important that decisions made within agencies should come from a deep, moral source. For this reason, it seems that the philosophy put forth by Confucius on moral leadership is especially relevant to social service agency leaders who may feel they are working in a moral vacuum.
It should also be noted that the ideas on moral leadership are highly consistent with the Code of Ethics practiced by social workers in the profession.
Application of Concepts to Agency ExampleIn the following section, practical recommendations and implications for social service administrators/leaders based upon the agency example will be discussed in the context of the synthesis of Boss's four components of transformational leadership and Confucian philosophical teachings. Confucius advocated that a primary focus of a leader should be to empower and serve the people. The leader who follows this component will make efforts to explore the various desires and problems of agency personnel and in turn, make efforts to address these areas.
Effective agency administrators/leaders make genuine efforts to position themselves to have quality communications with their personnel to facilitate the discussion of the employee's needs.
In the agency example presented earlier, the director worked with personnel to determine what their individual continuing education needs were in order to help them be better at their jobs.
Transformational leaders attempt to find ways to gain the admiration, respect, and trust of their staff. One way that leaders can gain the admiration and trust of their staff is to be an effective role model. It seems important that leaders model how to take safe risks in the workplace.
The transformational leader attempts to stimulate independent thought and creativity in staff members.
As noted earlier, transformational leaders delegate responsibility and authority to followers so that they empower followers to accomplish organizational goals in a relatively autonomous manner.
It would seem that leaders who wish to engage in intellectual stimulation are also open to a democratic approach to decision-making within an organization.
As noted earlier, this term refers to a leader's enthusiasm and optimism in articulating a clear, compelling vision, which results in stimulating a similar feeling among followers and helps a group of people towards its goals.
An agency director can seek to provide inspirational motivation by bringing staff and other stakeholders together through common values, beliefs, and ideas about how to best serve clients.
It is important that transformational leaders avoid imposing their own values and beliefs upon staff, but rather, work to empower agency personnel to develop a set of mutually acceptable values and beliefs that will guide the professional behaviors of workers in the organization
Caveats on Use of Confucian Teachings for Leadership in Social WorkThere are numerous critiques of Confucian teachings as applied to the modern world. In this paper, I would like to briefly discuss two issues: (1) sexism, and (2) autocratic leadership.Sexism: Confucian relationship of husband-to-wife by definition puts the woman in a subordinate role to the male. At this point, it might be tempting to simply dismiss all of the teachings of Confucius. Obviously, social work administrators/leaders are not interested in perpetuating a patriarchal system within their organization. In answer to this dilemma, I would suggest that readers of Confucius take an approach similar to those who struggle to find relevancy with the theories of Sigmund Freud. Many within our profession have dismissed the work of Sigmund Freud as sexist because of such views expressed by Freud that women are "mutilated and must learn to accept their lack of a penis" (Ettinger, 2007).Autocratic Leadership: First, it is important that Confucius lived in a period in which Chinese leadership was highly autocratic (Smith, 1973). Therefore, his writings reflected the moral conduct of his time regarding those in power. Confucius believed that while sovereigns should be obeyed, they should have to earn the support of their citizens by showing deference for the people and a sincere commitment to the common good (Smith 1998). Lee (2001) notes that Confucius' teachings are not a perfect match with traditional Western leadership models. Lee summarizes the primary styles of leadership appearing in the Analects as two types: authoritative (rather than autocratic) leadership and reciprocally, humanitarian leadership.
Conclusion
As noted earlier, there has been a movement from looking strictly at the managerial aspects of administration in the social services and nonprofit sectors and instead exploring the issue of leadership.
This has led to the realization that the administrative behaviors of a leader may be shaped less by technical decision-making tools than by the vision and values held by a leader. The vision and values of a leader can be influenced by a wide range of ideas and cultures. Confucius fashioned a model of leadership that challenges the leader to strive toward perfection, who is both idealistic and realistic